TNF and acute kidney injury: Although direct effects of proinflammatory cytokines specifically on bone during AKI have not been studied, proinflammatory cytokines have been associated with adverse effects on bone formation and resorption [Figure 1; (85–87)] For example, TNF-α and IL-6 have been shown to activate the parathyroid calcium-sensing receptor (88) and to inhibit renal expression of 1-α-hydroxylase (89), which could contribute to hormonal dysregulation of mineral metabolism in AKI.