TNF and colitis: However, elevated expression of inflammatory markers such as TNFα, IL-6, IL-1β, and IFNγ (stimulates macrophages to induce innate/adaptive immune responses), among others, and their presence in serum are frequently reported in HFD/FA-enriched rodent studies with/without induction of experimental colitis (14, 50, 51, 75, 79, 105, 106).