A number of papers have explored mechanisms of macrophage functional impairment in people with HIV on ART that are not dependent on direct infection, which include gp120-induced inhibition of apoptosis69, nef-induced inhibition of phagocytosis8,79 and downregulation of CD3680, as well as post-translational modification of Fc receptors81 and changes in reactive oxygen species generation82. This evidence concerns the gene ITIH4 and infection.