TNF and ischemic stroke: Secondly, ischemic stroke, including MCAO, can trigger a cascading pathological noninfectious neuroinflammation and the subsequent excessive release of proinflammatory cytokines, including interleukin-1 (IL-1), tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α), and interleukin-6 (IL-6) (Fujioka et al., 2003; Wang et al., 2007; Chamorro et al., 2016).