LCN2 and acute kidney injury: In a mouse renal ischemia–reperfusion injury model, P-NGAL expression has been shown to be upregulated in the proximal kidney tubular cells early in response to renal ischemia with a peak at 12 h post-ischemia [26], which could explain the initial increase observed for P-NGAL in nonsurvivors and patients who developed AKI and also had higher levels of lactate.