TNF and squamous cell intraepithelial neoplasia: Studies on the mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue system (MALT) in PLWH have shown abnormal immune responses in the mucosal milieu, including upregulation of expression of multiple regulatory cytokines such as IL-8, IL-23, TNF-α, IL-17A, and IFN-γ (TNF-α/IL-17A/IFN-γ triad), the depletion of Langerhans cells and CD3+ lymphocytes, increases in Foxp3+ T-regulatory cells, and in local lymphocyte infiltrates composed by CD8+ T cells, associated with the development of high-grade squamous intraepithelial lesions (HSILs) [91,92,93,94].