TNF and autoimmune disease: In monocytes/macrophage, besides its direct antibacterial effect on transcription of antimicrobial peptides such as cathelicidin and β-defensin 2 [31], 1,25(OH)2D inhibits inflammation by suppressing the expression of Toll-like receptor (TLR)2/4 and the production of inflammatory cytokines such as interleukin (IL)-1, IL-6, and tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α) that play a crucial pathogenic role in autoimmune diseases [32].