TNF and dementia: In summary, supraphysiological TNF-α might trigger dementia via early and late pathogenic mechanisms (Fig. 7D): 1) early mechanisms include altering the excitatory/inhibitory balance favoring excitotoxic neuronal cell death, impairing LTP and learning and memory, and (2) late mechanisms include increasing brain pathology by favoring Aβ production over Aβ clearance.