TGFB1 and gastric cancer: In addition to angiogenesis, TGFβ enhances gastric cancer-induced lymphangiogenesis through Smad2/3-mediated VEGF-C signaling [93], mediates Smad3 phosphorylation, and promotes protein tyrosine phosphatase receptor epsilon (PTPRε) transcription, leading to migration, invasion, and metastasis of HCC [94].