TNF and hypertensive disorder: Expression of vascular cell adhesion molecules (VCAMs), production of inflammatory mediators (e.g., tumor necrosis factor [TNF], IL-1, IL-6, 1L-17), stimulation of proinflammatory signaling pathways (e.g., mitogen-activated protein kinase [MAPK], signal transducer and activator of transcription [STAT]), activation of transcription factors (e.g., NF-kB, STAT activator protein 1, hypoxia-inducible factor 1), and circulating levels of inflammatory biomarkers (e.g., C-reactive protein [CRP], plasminogen activator inhibitor [PAI]-1, ILs) are all increased in hypertension [141,142,143].