TNF and cholangiocarcinoma: Studies demonstrate that lupeol and stigmasterol are anti-angiogenic compounds that inhibit endothelial cell proliferation, migration, and capillary network formation through the disruption of the TNF-α-VEGFR-2 axis, and they effectively suppress growth of cholangiocarcinoma xenografts by downregulating inflammatory cytokine production, macrophage recruitment and tumor angiogenesis [56].