TNF and inflammatory response: Notably, also for SARS-CoV and MERS-CoV infected patients, increased levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines in serum, including IL-1β, IL-6, IL-12, IFNγ, TNFα, IL-15, IL-17 and chemokines including CCL2 (MCP-1), CXCL10 (IP-10), CXCL9 (MIG), CCL-5, IL-8 were associated with pulmonary inflammation and extensive lung damage (21–23).