MTOR and neoplasm: Radiation‐induced DNA and membrane damage, as well as cytoplasmic ROS, activate many transcription factors and signaling pathways (including mTOR, IGF, and CXCL8) that modulate the immunophenotype and immunogenicity of tumor cells.[139] Importantly, radiation upregulates the expression of immune‐checkpoint ligands, including PD‐L1, on the surface of tumor cells and on immune cells in the tumor microenvironment.