ATG5 and colitis: Western blotting results showed higher levels of ATG5 and LC3II and a lower level of P62 in colitis tissues from F. nucleatum + DSS treated mice compared with that in the other groups (F. nucleatum group, DSS group and E. coli + DSS group) (Figure 3F), indicating that F. nucleatum specifically aggravates DSS-induced colitis through autophagy pathway.