TLR4 and urinary bladder carcinoma: Studies suggest that P-MAPA directly activates TLR2 and TLR4, as demonstrated by the increased expression of these TLRs in HEK293 cells in vitro [1], and in animal models of ovarian [35] and invasive bladder cancer [10], as well as by increased cytosolic levels of TLR-associated downstream signaling molecules MyD88, TRIF, and NF-κB p65 [35].