ATR and glioma: In human U51 glioma cells, fucoxanthin was shown to time-dependently induce ROS-mediated DNA damage, as evidenced by the activation of “ataxia-telangiectasia mutated” protein (ATM), “ataxia telangiectasia and Rad3-related” protein (ATR), and p53 by phosphorylation of Ser1981-ATM, Ser428-ATR, and Ser15-p53 respectively, as well as by the phosphorylation of Ser139 of histone H2AX [84].