Similar to the changing pattern of fetal blood glucose, insulin, and leptin levels in Fig. 3, the expression levels of p-Akt, p-mTOR, p-4E-BP1, and p-SGK1 were robustly increased in the placental tissues of all GDM groups compared with the control group, as shown in Figs. 4A–D and 5A–D. Here, INS is linked to gestational diabetes.