TNF and colitis: Our previous study showed that EVs obtained from three kinds of kefir-derived Lactobacillus (L. kefir, L. kefiranofaciens, and L. kefirgranum) using ultracentrifugation can modulate inflammation responses via alleviating the production of inflammatory cytokines in tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α)-induced inflammation in Caco-2 cells and 2,4,6-trinitrobenzene sulfonic acid (TNBS)-induced colitis [15].