TNF and irritable bowel syndrome: The activation of the NF-κB/Iκb-α pathway was discovered to be induced in mucosal macrophages and colonic epithelial cells of IBS patients [57] The abnormal activation of the NF-κB signaling pathway in the intestinal mucosal layer promotes the expression of inflammatory factors, such as NLRP3, which in turn promotes IL-1β and TNF-α production [58].