TNF and COVID-19: Consistent with some, but not all, prior studies (10, 14–16, 37, 38), TNF-α levels were increased in COVID-19 patients compared with HVs, but levels did not differ among severity groups (Figure 1); in contrast, TNF-β levels were comparable between HVs and COVID-19 patients (Supplemental Figure 4 and Supplemental Table 3).