DDIT3 and cancer: The ER stress response has been reported to initiate apoptosis in various cancer cells, through three different pathways; (i) activation of CHOP, also known as DNA damage-inducible gene 153 (GADD153), (ii) activation of ER associated caspases and (iii) activation of c-Jun N- terminal kinase (JNK)-mediated cell death (G Johnson et al., 2011).