CSF2 and neoplasm: Roda et al. reported that macrophages stimulated with GM-CSF at a low oxygen concentration secrete a high level of a soluble form of the vascular endothelial growth factor receptor 1 (sVEGFR-1), which neutralizes VEGF and inhibits its biological activity; this suggests that administration of GM-CSF might reduce tumor growth and angiogenesis in patients with melanoma through the induction of sVEGFR-1 expression [94].