TGFB1 and neoplasm: In this context, TGF-β can induce the conversion of normal oral fibroblasts (NOFs) into CAFs, which are fibronectin type III domain-containing 1 (FNDC1), serpin peptidase inhibitor type 1 (SERPINE1), stanniocalcin 2 (STC2), and type I collagen, to promote the proliferation and invasion of OSCC cells, resulting in a more aggressive tumour phenotypes [57].