TNF and cancer: However, PD‐L1 is widely expressed on the membranes of hematopoietic and nonhemopoietic cells other than cancer cells, such as B and T lymphocytes, dendric cells (DCs), macrophages, and vascular endothelial cells, etc. The expression of PD‐L1 is regulated by inflammatory cytokines, such as type 1 IFN, type 2 IFN (IFN‐gamma), and TNF‐α.13