TNF and tuberculosis: A study of proinflammatory cytokines in patients with pulmonary tuberculosis (n = 88; 42 of 88 coinfected with S. stercoralis) and latent tuberculosis (n = 88; 44 of 88 coinfected with S. stercoralis) found significantly lower plasma tumor necrosis factor (TNF) α, IFN-ɣ, and interleukin 2 (IL-2) in S. stercoralis–coinfected individuals, compared with a tuberculosis-only control group [11].