TNF and AIDS: This defense stems from observations from several reports showing (i) dampened killing ability of macrophages and neutrophils during late stages of lymphopenia such as with AIDS progression (205, 206); (ii) impaired activation and effector functions of human neutrophils in response to TNF-α, IL-1β, and nitric oxide deficiency was observed in healthy patients who succumbed to pulmonary cryptococcosis (207); (iii) although neutropenia is not a risk factor for cryptococcosis, neutropenia is commonly observed in patients with HIV/AIDS (206, 208, 209).