TGFB1 and neoplasm: In pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC), CAFs in direct interaction with adjacent tumour cells show active TGF-β signalling and deposit collagen, whereas CAFs at a greater distance are also activated by the tumour cells, but are unresponsive to TGF-β, deposit HA and establish a tumourigenic, pro-inflammatory environment through the expression of cytokines such as IL-6, or antigen presentation32–34; this fosters the recruitment and activation of immune cells, which, as discussed below, contribute to the establishment of the cancer niche.