CSF2 and neoplasm: Then, DCs are stimulated with activating cytokines such as granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF), IL-4 and TNF-α and the exposure to a specific antigen is induced, usually by incubation with either tumor lysates or TAAs, but methods of cell fusion or tumor-associated RNA or DNA transfection have also been described [129,145].