TNF and infection: As early as the first 24 h after infection, dendritic cells containing parasite antigens, but not parasites, secrete IL-12, and prime T-cell, inducing their differentiation on Th1 cells, which, in turn will produce pro-inflammatory cytokines such as TNF-α and IFN-γ, maximizing the capacities of macrophages to produce NO and reactive oxygen species to fight parasites (Rodrigues et al., 2016).