Furthermore, the levels of IL-1 receptor antagonist (IL-1RA), which inhibits the interaction between IL-1β and its receptor and blocks downstream signaling, are decreased in islets from non-diabetic donors exposed to sera from patients with T1DM, and decreased expression of IL-1RA not only results in insulin-producing beta-cell dysfunction and death but also IL-1β production, thus further affecting beta-cells (109). Here, INS is linked to type 1 diabetes mellitus.