INS and Insulin resistance: TNF-α activates stress-response kinase pathways, including the IκB kinase β (IKKβ)/nuclear factor κ B (NFκB) and c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK) pathways, which promote insulin resistance via phosphorylation of IRS1 on serine residues [116], and by decreasing expression of GLUT-4 glucose transporters, which are crucial to insulin transmembrane signaling [75,117].