TNF and glioblastoma: PD-1 and CSF-1R dual blockade increased the extravasation of allogeneic CD8+ T-cell across brain microvessels (Figure 5D&E), reversed the immunosuppression onto CD8+ T-cell in terms of TNF-α and TGF-β1 production (Figure 5F, Figure 5—figure supplement 2), and augmented CD8+ T-cell cytotoxic function with higher GBM tumor apoptosis shown by caspase-3/7 activation (Figure 5G–H, Figure 5—figure supplement 3) for each GBM subtype, specifically the MES GBM, compared to monotherapies.