TGFB1 and prostate cancer: During prostate cancer progression, increased TGF-β expression in stroma and epithelium has been reported (Shariat et al., 2004; Stravodimos et al., 2000), whereas loss of TGF-β receptors in malignant tissues protects them from anti-proliferative and pro-apoptotic effects of TGF-β (Kim et al., 1998).