TNF and infection: During infection, miR-155 is upregulated via NFκB in response to TLR-signaling and cytokines such as IFN-β, IFN-γ, and TNF, and alters inflammation by multiple mechanisms including modulating TLR signaling, transcription factor expression, and cytokine production [28, 32] miR-155 is also necessary for optimal development of cytokine-secreting CD8+ T lymphocytes during Lm infection [33, 34], as well as other infections, e.g., Herpes simplex virus [34, 35].