TLR4 and Cowden disease: We assessed the immunomodulatory efficacy of four probiotic strains, including Lactobacillus salivarius, Bifidobacterium bifidum, Bacillus coagulans and Bacillus subtilis natto, in increasing the multiplicity of infection (MOI) by 10 (107 CFU/mL) and 100 (108 CFU/mL) for each strain on the induction of pro- and anti-inflammatory cytokines (IL-12, IL-10 and TGF-β); co-stimulatory molecules (CD80 and CD86); signal-transducing receptors (TLR-2, TLR-4, TLR-9 and integrin αvβ8) in human monocyte-derived DCs from six IBD patients (three UC, three CD) and three healthy controls.