TNF and atherosclerosis: Pro-inflammatory factors, such as leptin, tumor necrosis factor α (TNF-α), monocyte chemoattractant protein 1 (MCP-1), resistin, and FABP4, are elevated, while anti-inflammatory factors, e.g., adiponectin, are low, in chronic systemic inflammation, promoting insulin resistance and atherosclerosis (Chung and Choi 2020).