TLR4 and neoplasm: Mechanisms by which F. nucleatum promotes tumor progression include generating a proinflammatory tumor-promoting microenvironment (Kostic et al., 2013) and accelerating proliferation of colon cancer cells through activation of Wnt/beta-catenin signaling (Rubinstein et al., 2013, 2019; Wu et al., 2018b) and through TLR4-activated signaling to NF-κB (Yang et al., 2017; Wu et al., 2018b).