TNF and bacterial vaginosis: A few examples include a study by Sturm-Ramirez et al. (2000), in which women with BV had higher odds of having high levels of IL-1β or a tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α) (adjusted odds ratio: 4.17; 95% confidence interval: 1.69–10.48; p = 0.002) and a study by Jespers et al. (2017), in which statistically significant increased concentrations of IL-12 were observed in women with incident BV.