TNF and COVID-19: Signature cytokines in severely ill COVID-19 patients were consistent with those in SARS and MERS, i.e., enhanced expression of IL-6, TNF-α, macrophage inflammatory protein 1-α (MIP-1α), MCP3, GM-CSF, IL-2, and IP-10 along with elevated chemokines (IP-10, CCL2/MCP1, CXCL1, CXCL5) were also detected in SARS-CoV-2 infection (96–99).