CCN2 and infection: In general, alveolar epithelial injury resulting from exogenous (e.g., infection, toxin, radiation) or endogenous (eg. inflammation, oxidative stress, and aberrant immune responses) origins triggers the release of profibrotic cytokines (transforming growth factor-β [TGFβ] and tumor necrosis factor-α [TNFα]) and growth factors (connective tissue growth factor [CTGF], insulin-like growth factor 1[IGF-1] and platelet-derived growth factor [PDGF]).