Inflammatory responses triggered by TLR4 bound by circulating LPS, primarily through the NF-κB pathway and the subsequent release of pro-inflammatory cytokines such as TNF-α, IL-6, IL-1, and IL-27, promotes the development of atherosclerosis.156 Additionally, nucleotide-binding oligomerization domain-containing protein 1 (NOD1) and NOD2 can bind circulating PG and activate the NF-κB pathway to trigger inflammatory responses. Here, NOD1 is linked to atherosclerosis.