TNF and cancer: Several inflammatory mediators, including cytokines, such as interleukin-1β (IL-1β), IL-6, tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), chemokines, growth factors, and reactive oxygen species (ROS) contribute to the proliferation, metastasis, angiogenesis, and chemoresistance of cancer cells by activation of transcription factors like MAPKs, NF-κB, and mTOR [39].