Selected cross-sectional studies (n 10 studies) examined the association between the UPF consumption and the following health outcomes: overweight/obesity (n 5), high waist circumference or abdominal obesity (n 5), BMI gain (n 3), hypertension (n 3), low HDL-cholesterol (n 3), the metabolic syndrome (n 3), hypertriacylglycerolaemia (n 3), hyperglycaemia (n 3), waist circumference gain (n 2), irritable bowel syndrome (n 1), and C-reactive protein levels (n 1). Here, CRP is linked to obesity due to melanocortin 4 receptor deficiency.