INS and atrial fibrillation: Studies have shown up‐regulation of GDF‐15 in cardiovascular diseases (cardiomyopathies, heart failure, atrial fibrillation, and stroke) and with type 2 diabetes, where higher levels associated with fasting glucose, insulin resistance index, and glycated hemoglobin (Adela & Banerjee, 2015; Berezin, 2016).