On the other hand, astrocytes are also direct sensors for glucose and fatty acids,32 leptin33 and insulin.34 Importantly, astrocytic insulin signalling plays a role in glucose-induced neuronal activation,35 and obesity impacts astrocyte functions.33, , –36 Loss of astrocytic glucose sensing in the hypothalamus may play a role in obesity and T2D development.32 Here, INS is linked to obesity due to melanocortin 4 receptor deficiency.