Surprisingly, we even observed a sharp stimulation by some probiotic bacteria in TNF-α production by AIEC-infected macrophages derived either from UC or CD patients, such as for instance in the presence of B. breve Bbr8, similar to what observed with the nonprobiotic S. epidermidis, suggesting that commensal or even probiotic strains, can synergize with LF82 in triggering proinflammatory cytokine release in CD. Here, TNF is linked to Cowden disease.