NAS ≤ 3 is associated with significant (>1.5-fold, p<0.01) hepatic induction of multiple chemokines (CCL20, CXCL9, CXCL10, and CXCL11); both SPP1 and NOD2, previously been implicated in macrophage activation and M1 polarization [12,13], are also upregulated as compared to controls (S2 Table). Here, CXCL9 is linked to neonatal abstinence syndrome.