TNF and infectious otitis media: In addition to the balance of Th1/Th2 ratio, AOM/DSS treatment causes colon tissue damage and it induces cytokine productions by neutrophil, monocyte, and macrophage.42 After colon tissue damage, like T and B cells, these cells produce cytokines including TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-6, causing inflammatory cell infiltration.