VEGFA and cancer: Cancer cells achieve this by producing immune effector molecules, such as tumor necrosis factor-α (TNFα) and interleukin-6 (IL-6), growth factors that regulate tumor proliferation and angiogenesis, such as transforming growth factor-β (TGF-β) and vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF), and matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) that degrade extracellular matrix proteins (31, 36).