TNF and viral infectious disease: The specific and severe β-cell destruction then occurs through their special vulnerability towards an array of cytokines and chemokines such as interleukin (IL)-1β, interferon (IFN)-γ, tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α and CXCL10 [94], which induce β-cell destruction in response to viral infection in human islets [60,95] (Figure 4).